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Metabolism – Functions, Regulation and Disorders

Metabolism refers to all chemical processes in the body that generate energy and sustain cell function. It is fundamental to health and overall well-being.

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Things worth knowing about "Metabolism"

Metabolism refers to all chemical processes in the body that generate energy and sustain cell function. It is fundamental to health and overall well-being.

What Is Metabolism?

Metabolism refers to the complete set of biochemical reactions that occur within the cells of the human body. These processes are essential for life: they convert nutrients from food into usable energy, build and maintain body structures, and break down and eliminate waste products. Without a properly functioning metabolism, life would not be possible.

Types of Metabolism

Metabolism is broadly divided into two complementary processes:

Anabolism (constructive metabolism): Simple molecules are assembled into more complex structures, such as building proteins from amino acids or storing glucose as glycogen. These processes require energy.
Catabolism (destructive metabolism): Complex molecules are broken down into simpler components, releasing energy in the process. A classic example is the breakdown of glucose to produce energy through glycolysis and cellular respiration.

Both processes occur simultaneously and are precisely regulated to maintain balance.

Key Metabolic Pathways

Carbohydrate Metabolism

Carbohydrates are digested into glucose and absorbed into the bloodstream. The hormone insulin, produced by the pancreas, regulates the uptake of glucose into cells, where it is either used for energy production or stored as glycogen.

Fat Metabolism

Fats serve as the body´s long-term energy reserve. When energy is needed, fatty acids are released from adipose tissue and broken down through beta-oxidation into acetyl-CoA, which then enters the citric acid cycle to generate energy.

Protein Metabolism

Proteins are broken down into amino acids, which are used to build new proteins, converted into glucose via gluconeogenesis, or used for energy when needed.

Vitamin and Mineral Metabolism

Vitamins and minerals serve as essential cofactors for numerous metabolic reactions. Deficiencies in these micronutrients can significantly impair metabolic function.

Regulation of Metabolism

Metabolism is tightly regulated by a network of hormones, the nervous system, and enzymes. Key regulators include:

Insulin and glucagon (pancreas): Regulate blood glucose levels
Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4): Control basal metabolic rate and overall metabolic speed
Adrenaline and cortisol (adrenal glands): Activate metabolism during stress responses
Leptin and ghrelin: Regulate hunger and satiety signals

Basal Metabolic Rate and Total Energy Needs

The basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the amount of energy the body needs at complete rest to sustain vital functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and body temperature regulation. It accounts for approximately 60–70% of total daily energy expenditure in adults. The total energy requirement is the sum of the BMR plus energy used during physical activity and the thermic effect of food.

Factors That Influence Metabolism

Age: Metabolic rate tends to decline with age, partly due to loss of muscle mass.
Sex: Men generally have a higher BMR than women due to greater muscle mass.
Body composition: Muscle tissue burns more energy than fat tissue.
Diet: The type and quantity of food consumed significantly affects metabolic processes.
Physical activity: Exercise and movement increase total energy expenditure.
Genetics: Inherited factors contribute to individual metabolic rates.
Hormonal status: Conditions such as thyroid disorders can slow down or speed up metabolism.

Metabolic Disorders

When metabolism becomes dysregulated, metabolic disorders can develop. Common examples include:

Diabetes mellitus: Impaired carbohydrate metabolism due to insulin deficiency or resistance
Dyslipidemia: Abnormal cholesterol or triglyceride levels
Metabolic syndrome: A cluster of conditions including obesity, high blood pressure, elevated blood glucose, and abnormal blood lipids
Gout: Disrupted purine metabolism leading to elevated uric acid levels
Phenylketonuria (PKU): An inherited disorder of amino acid metabolism
Thyroid disorders: Overactive or underactive thyroid gland affecting metabolic speed

Metabolism and Health

A well-functioning metabolism is the foundation of physical performance, a healthy body weight, and overall well-being. A balanced diet, regular physical activity, adequate sleep, and stress management are key lifestyle factors that support a healthy metabolism. If a metabolic disorder is suspected, medical evaluation should be sought promptly.

References

Berg, J. M., Tymoczko, J. L., Stryer, L.: Biochemistry. 9th edition. W. H. Freeman and Company, New York 2019.
World Health Organization (WHO): Noncommunicable diseases – Metabolic risk factors. Available at: https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/topics/topic-details/GHO/ncd-risk-factors (accessed 2024).
Frayn, K. N.: Metabolic Regulation: A Human Perspective. 3rd edition. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford 2010.

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