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Sperm – Structure, Function and Male Fertility

Sperm are the male reproductive cells responsible for fertilizing the egg. They are produced in the testes and are essential for male fertility.

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Things worth knowing about "Sperm"

Sperm are the male reproductive cells responsible for fertilizing the egg. They are produced in the testes and are essential for male fertility.

What Are Sperm?

Sperm (also called spermatozoa or sperm cells) are the male reproductive cells (gametes). They are produced in the testes through a process called spermatogenesis and carry the paternal genetic material (DNA). Their primary function is to travel to and fertilize a female egg cell (ovum), initiating pregnancy.

Structure of a Sperm Cell

A single sperm cell consists of three main parts:

Head: Contains the cell nucleus with the haploid set of chromosomes (23 chromosomes) and the acrosome, an enzyme-filled cap that helps penetrate the outer layer of the egg.
Midpiece: Packed with mitochondria that produce energy (ATP) to power the sperm movement.
Tail (Flagellum): The long whip-like extension that propels the sperm forward with a characteristic swimming motion.

Sperm Production (Spermatogenesis)

Spermatogenesis takes place in the seminiferous tubules of the testes and takes approximately 64–74 days in humans. It involves several stages:

Proliferation: Division of spermatogonia (precursor cells) through mitosis.
Meiosis: Reduction of the chromosome number to the haploid set (23 chromosomes).
Spermiogenesis: Maturation of round spermatids into fully formed sperm cells.

The sperm then undergo further maturation in the epididymis, where they acquire full motility.

Sperm Quality and Male Fertility

Sperm quality is a key factor in male fertility. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines the following reference values for a semen analysis:

Concentration: at least 16 million sperm per milliliter of ejaculate
Total count: at least 39 million sperm per ejaculate
Motility: at least 42% motile sperm
Morphology: at least 4% normally shaped sperm (by Kruger criteria)

Deviations from these values may indicate oligospermia (too few sperm), asthenospermia (reduced motility), or teratospermia (abnormal forms).

Factors Affecting Sperm Quality

Various factors can influence sperm production and quality:

Elevated scrotal temperature (e.g., from tight clothing or frequent sauna use)
Smoking, alcohol, and drug use
Stress and sleep deprivation
Environmental toxins and endocrine-disrupting substances
Medical conditions such as varicocele, mumps orchitis, or hormonal disorders
Certain medications (e.g., chemotherapy agents, anabolic steroids)

Diagnosis of Sperm Problems

The most important diagnostic tool is the semen analysis (seminogram), in which a semen sample is examined in a laboratory. The number, motility, and morphology of the sperm are assessed. Additional tests may include hormonal blood tests, genetic testing, or a testicular biopsy.

Treatment for Reduced Sperm Quality

Depending on the cause and severity, several treatment options are available:

Lifestyle modifications (diet, exercise, quitting smoking and alcohol)
Hormone therapy for hormonal disorders
Surgical interventions (e.g., varicocele repair)
Assisted reproductive technologies such as IUI (intrauterine insemination), IVF (in vitro fertilization), or ICSI (intracytoplasmic sperm injection)

References

World Health Organization (WHO): WHO laboratory manual for the examination and processing of human semen, 6th edition, 2021.
Nieschlag E., Behre H.M., Nieschlag S.: Andrology – Male Reproductive Health and Dysfunction. Springer, 3rd edition, 2010.
Cooper T.G. et al.: World Health Organization reference values for human semen characteristics. Human Reproduction Update, 16(3):231–245, 2010.

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