Phylloquinone (Vitamin K1): Functions and Deficiency
Phylloquinone is the natural, plant-derived form of Vitamin K1, found mainly in green leafy vegetables. It plays a key role in blood clotting and bone health.
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Phylloquinone is the natural, plant-derived form of Vitamin K1, found mainly in green leafy vegetables. It plays a key role in blood clotting and bone health.
What is Phylloquinone?
Phylloquinone (also known as Vitamin K1) is a fat-soluble compound belonging to the Vitamin K family. It is the naturally occurring, plant-based form of Vitamin K and is primarily obtained through the diet. Its name derives from the Greek word phyllon (leaf), reflecting its abundance in green leafy vegetables.
Biological Functions
Phylloquinone performs several vital roles in the human body:
- Blood clotting: Phylloquinone is essential for the activation of clotting factors (II, VII, IX, X) as well as proteins C and S. Without adequate Vitamin K1, blood cannot clot properly, leading to prolonged bleeding times.
- Bone health: Phylloquinone activates osteocalcin, a protein required for the incorporation of calcium into the bone matrix, thereby supporting bone mineralization and strength.
- Vascular protection: Vitamin K1 helps prevent the calcification of blood vessels by activating Matrix Gla Protein (MGP).
Dietary Sources
Phylloquinone is found predominantly in plant-based foods, especially:
- Green leafy vegetables such as spinach, kale, Swiss chard, and parsley
- Broccoli and Brussels sprouts
- Romaine lettuce and lamb lettuce
- Vegetable oils such as soybean and canola oil
- Avocado
Animal products and fermented foods tend to contain menaquinone (Vitamin K2), another form of Vitamin K.
Recommended Intake
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) recommends the following adequate intake (AI) for Vitamin K (as phylloquinone):
- Adult men and women: 70 µg per day
- Pregnant and breastfeeding women: 70 µg per day
- Children: 10–45 µg per day depending on age group
These values are in line with recommendations from major health organizations including the World Health Organization (WHO).
Deficiency
Phylloquinone deficiency is rare in healthy adults with a balanced diet, but may occur in specific situations:
- In newborns (Vitamin K crosses the placenta poorly and breast milk contains little of it)
- In conditions impairing fat absorption (e.g., celiac disease, Crohn's disease, short bowel syndrome)
- Following prolonged antibiotic use (inhibiting intestinal flora)
- In severe liver disease
Common signs of deficiency include: prolonged bleeding time, easy bruising, excessive bleeding from wounds, and in severe cases, spontaneous internal bleeding.
Toxicity and Overdose
Phylloquinone is considered very safe and well-tolerated. No toxic effects have been documented even at higher dietary intake levels. The EFSA has not established a tolerable upper intake level (UL) for phylloquinone, as no adverse effects from high intake have been confirmed.
Interactions
The following interactions deserve special attention:
- Vitamin K antagonists (e.g., warfarin, phenprocoumon): Phylloquinone counteracts the anticoagulant effect of these medications. Individuals taking these drugs should maintain a consistent Vitamin K intake and discuss dietary changes with their physician.
- Fat-soluble vitamins: Since phylloquinone is fat-soluble, consuming it alongside dietary fat significantly improves its bioavailability.
- High-dose Vitamin E: May interfere with the absorption and activity of Vitamin K.
Supplementation
Phylloquinone supplements are used in:
- Newborns as prophylaxis against Vitamin K deficiency bleeding (standard practice in many countries)
- Individuals with malabsorption syndromes
- Patients following bariatric surgery
Supplements are available as drops, capsules, and injectable solutions. Dosage should always be determined in consultation with a healthcare professional.
References
- European Food Safety Authority (EFSA): Dietary Reference Values for Vitamin K. EFSA Journal, 2017;15(5):4780.
- Shearer MJ, Fu X, Booth SL: Vitamin K nutrition, metabolism, and requirements: current concepts and future research. Advances in Nutrition, 2012;3(2):182–195.
- World Health Organization (WHO): Vitamin and Mineral Requirements in Human Nutrition, 2nd edition. Geneva, 2004.
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