Pancreatic Hormone – Insulin, Glucagon and More
Pancreatic hormones are messenger substances produced by the pancreas that regulate blood sugar levels. The most important ones are insulin and glucagon.
Things worth knowing about "Pancreatic Hormone"
Pancreatic hormones are messenger substances produced by the pancreas that regulate blood sugar levels. The most important ones are insulin and glucagon.
What Is a Pancreatic Hormone?
Pancreatic hormones are chemical messengers produced by the pancreas and released directly into the bloodstream. They form part of the endocrine function of the pancreas and play a central role in regulating blood glucose levels as well as energy and fat metabolism. The hormone-producing cells of the pancreas are organized in structures known as the islets of Langerhans -- small clusters of cells distributed throughout the pancreatic tissue.
The Most Important Pancreatic Hormones
Insulin
Insulin is produced by the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans and is the only hormone in the human body capable of lowering blood glucose. After a meal, blood glucose levels rise, triggering the release of insulin. It enables body cells to absorb and use glucose for energy. Excess glucose is stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen. A deficiency of insulin or impaired insulin action leads to diabetes mellitus.
Glucagon
Glucagon is produced by the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans and acts in opposition to insulin: it raises blood glucose levels by stimulating the liver to break down stored glycogen into glucose (glycogenolysis) and to produce new glucose (gluconeogenesis). Glucagon is released primarily during low blood sugar (hypoglycemia) or during fasting periods.
Somatostatin
Somatostatin is secreted by the delta cells of the pancreas and has an inhibitory effect on both insulin and glucagon release. It thereby regulates the overall hormonal balance of the pancreas and also influences digestion by slowing gastric emptying.
Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP)
Pancreatic polypeptide is produced by the PP cells (also called F cells) of the pancreas. It influences the exocrine function of the pancreas -- namely the production of digestive enzymes -- and also has a regulatory effect on appetite and food intake.
Function and Significance of Pancreatic Hormones
Pancreatic hormones work in a finely tuned balance to keep blood glucose within a narrow normal range (fasting levels of approximately 70--100 mg/dl). This balance is essential for supplying all body cells with energy. Disruptions in the production or action of these hormones can lead to serious metabolic diseases:
- Type 1 diabetes mellitus: Autoimmune destruction of beta cells resulting in absolute insulin deficiency
- Type 2 diabetes mellitus: Relative insulin resistance combined with declining insulin production
- Insulinoma: A benign tumor of the beta cells with excessive insulin production
- Glucagonoma: A rare tumor of the alpha cells leading to elevated glucagon levels
Diagnosis and Measurement of Pancreatic Hormones
Pancreatic hormones can be measured in the blood. Relevant laboratory values include:
- Fasting blood glucose and HbA1c to assess long-term blood glucose regulation
- Insulin levels and C-peptide to evaluate the body own insulin production
- Glucagon levels when a glucagonoma is suspected
Therapeutic Relevance
Pancreatic hormones and their synthetic analogues are used in medicine in various ways. Insulin preparations are the cornerstone of treatment for type 1 diabetes and are also used in advanced type 2 diabetes. Glucagon injections are administered in cases of severe hypoglycemia when the patient is unable to consume food. Somatostatin analogues (e.g., octreotide) are used in the treatment of neuroendocrine tumors and certain hormonal disorders.
References
- World Health Organization (WHO) - Classification of Diabetes Mellitus. Geneva: WHO, 2019. Available at: https://www.who.int
- Kasper, D. L. et al. - Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 21st edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2022.
- Boron, W. F. and Boulpaep, E. L. - Medical Physiology, 3rd edition. Philadelphia: Elsevier, 2017.
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